The Teaching of Writing: A Survey on the Approaches to Teaching Writing

Abstract
This paper presents a discussion on the different approaches in the teaching of writing. This includes a discussion on the process-based, product-based, genre-based, creative writing, rhetorical, personal, and scholarly/academic approaches. Also, this presents the critical and academic literacies perspectives on teaching second language writing. Then, the underlying philosophies of some of these approaches as well as implications for the classroom are also discussed. Finally, a proposal for teaching writing based on the drawing together of a number of these perspectives is then presented.

Introduction
A Filipino boy of five went excitedly and merrily to his parents, brothers, and friends to eagerly announce that he was able to write “I love you.” The ability to express one’s ideas, feelings, emotions, and opinions in writing in the second or foreign language is truly a major achievement. In like manner, the ability to effectively teach writing to second language (L2) learners is not only an achievement but also a lifetime accomplishment. To be able to do this, a teacher must not forget his fundamental goal: he should educate the students efficiently. More importantly, he should realize that writing is being taught in many different ways, and each method can be effective, if he believes in what he teaches.
The sole objective of this paper is to survey the different approaches to teaching writing. To achieve this objective, this paper aims to explain and answer the following:
1. What are the different approaches to teaching writing?
2. Are there advantages and disadvantages in each approach? What are these?
3. What are the implications of these approaches to the classrooms?
This study is significant because it entices the teachers of writing, especially the new ones, to discover the appropriate and exact approach, among the varied approaches, in teaching writing to L2 students. Also, it makes them aware that the approach they use can greatly affect the learning of the students—it could either make the students learn a lot or nothing at all. By teaching with the right approach to students, teachers will then be able to reach their goal.

Approach, Design, and Procedure
In this paper, the word approach is recurring. In the field of education, this word may be confusing with other terms like design and procedure. It is then necessary to define approach through Richards and Rodgers’ notions of approach, design and procedure (1986, as cited in Paltridge, 2004). Approach refers to the theory of language and language learning which underlies the particular approach or methodology. Design includes the objectives, organization, and content of the particular syllabus type, kinds of teaching and learning activities, teacher and learner roles, and the role of instructional materials. Procedure describes the actual classroom techniques and practices that might be employed within the particular method or approach.

The Product-based Approach
The first approach that this paper would discuss on is the product-based. In the teaching of writing, a teacher can always make a choice: to focus on the product or on the process itself. If a teacher concentrates on the product, he is only interested in the goal or aim of the task or activity. Almost half a century ago, teachers were mostly concerned with the final outcome or the final product of writing, like reports, essays, stories, or simply what the product should “look” like. During this period, compositions, according to Douglas Brown (2001, p. 335), “were supposed to (a) meet certain standards of prescribed English rhetorical style, (b) reflect accurate grammar, and (c) be organized in conformity with what the audience would consider to be conventional.”
Following this approach are the Controlled Composition Approach or the Model Approach and the Current-traditional Rhetoric Approach which are both influenced by the behaviorist theory (Silva, n.d). Under the Controlled Composition Approach, students are only tasked to copy words, phrases, and sentences to make them familiar of the conventions of the English language or their second language. Then, the time came when suggestions rose up that controlled composition was not enough. In Current-traditional Rhetoric Approach, students’ attention is focused basically on the form. Writing, in this approach, is primarily a matter of arranging words, phrases, sentences, or even paragraphs, and of fitting sentences and paragraphs into prescribed patterns.
The product approach may be effective for it helps L2 learners to be acquainted with the structures, forms, and conventions of the second language they are learning. This, moreover, enhances or develops their linguistic competence. Because students are controlled and limited, however, this hinders them from developing necessary skills in creating or composing, which is actually basic in all forms of writing. In other words, this approach takes away the awareness from the students that writing is not just all about the product through imitation or familiarization but much more on producing the outcome through following a certain process.

The Process-based Approach
Writing is a process. This inspires the second approach discussed in this paper: the process-based. There is actually no problem with the Product Approach for its underlying principles are still the crucial concerns of a teacher. But in due course of time, a teacher’s attention is inevitably brought to the L2 students when they are now seen as creators of language. As such, writers go through stages or processes before they are able to fully create or compose a piece of work. In 2001, Jeremy Harmer (p. 257) makes it clear that “a process approach aims to get to the heart of the various skills that should be employed when writing.” When concentrating on the process, the teacher pays attention to various stages that any piece of writing goes through.
The writing process includes planning, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing (Alinsangan, 2005). The purpose of planning is to generate ideas, choose a topic, focus, and organize. In drafting, a writer tries to write out all that he has planned. The goal is not really to come up with a complete text yet but a rough draft. When the draft is ready, a writer now proceeds to revising where he centers on the development and coherence of his work, especially to the effectiveness of the supporting ideas and clarity of the content. After revising, it is time for editing or proofreading to correct the errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and mechanics. When all the corrections are made, the writer is now ready for publishing. This doesn’t really mean to “publish” the work on a journal, magazine, newspaper, and the like, but at least to have his teacher, classmates, or even friends read the work.
More and more teachers of writing embrace this approach because it is unquestionable that students do develop several writing skills when using the process approach. There are times, however, when process writing is not appropriate, either because classroom time is limited, or because the teacher wants the students to write quickly as part of a task or activity. This approach, in other words, is time-consuming. No matter how effective this may be to students, the fact remains that this approach is not really practical, especially when used in writing courses with a limited time every writing session, like only two to three hours in a week.

The Genre-based Approach
There are various kinds of writing. This gives birth to the third approach presented in this paper: the genre-based. The genre approach to teaching writing focuses, as the terms suggests, on teaching particular genres that students need control of in order to succeed in particular settings (Paltridge, 2004). This might include a focus on language and discourse features of the texts, as well as the context in which the text is produced.
The underlying view of language in genre-based approach is that language is functional: It is through language that learners “get things done” and achieve certain goals. Another important aspect of this view is the position that language occurs in particular cultural and social contexts and can only be understood in relation to these contexts. Speakers and writers, thus, use particular genres in order to fulfill certain social functions and to achieve certain goals within particular social and cultural contexts. Language, then, in a genre perspective, is both purposeful and inseparable from the social and cultural context in which it occurs (Paltridge, 2004).
The goals and objectives of genre-based approach are to enable learners to use genres which are important for them to be able to participate in, and have access to. A genre-based syllabus will, then, be made up of a list of genres learners need to acquire, including relevant discourse and language level features and contextual information in relation to them. The starting point of the syllabus, however, is the genre, or whole text, even though lower levels aspects of language are focused on as well in the course of the program (Paltridge, 2004).
In the genre approach to writing, students study the texts first in the genre they are going to write before they do their own writing. Chris Tribble (1997, as cited in Harmer, 2001) suggests the following “data collection” procedure as a prelude to the writing of whatever genre (e.g. news article, book review, reaction paper, and the like). After collecting the data, students then study the style, structure, form, and convention of the genre they are about to write, like a news article. When they have sufficient knowledge, they can then begin writing.
A number of teachers also like the idea of having their students write in various genres because this makes the students versatile. This approach, however, only makes the students imitate the given styles or models which is rather prescriptive. The great danger here is: This would give them the idea that writing is just a form of reproduction rather than creation.

A Process Approach to Genre-based Teaching
Drawing together genre and process approaches, there is now a procedure which focuses on the process of learning about, and acquiring genres, rather than one which focuses solely on the end product, or specific variety of genre (Flowerdew, 1993; Badger & White, 2000, as cited in Paltridge, 2004). Flowerdew, Badge and White argue that a teacher cannot hope to predict the range of genres his students will, in time, need to be able to participate in. They strongly believe that a teacher needs to help his students see how they can go about discovering how genres differ from one another, how the same genre may vary, as well as what the particular expectations of the writing they are engaged in might actually be.
Johns (1993, as cited in Paltridge, 2004) discusses the importance of audience in the teaching of second language writing. She considers the expert as the “all-powerful reader” of students’ texts who can either accept or reject students’ writing as coherent and consistent with the conventions of the target discourse community or not. In her view knowledge of this audience’s attitudes, beliefs, and expectations is not only possible but essential for students writing in a second language.

The Creative Writing Approach
Writing is creative. The fourth approach discussed in this paper has something to do with students being creative: the creative writing. Harmer (2001, p. 259) defines creative writing as an “imaginative tasks such as poetry, short stories, and plays.” Thus, students are required to compose literature. Often, because this task is both exciting and challenging, the end result is some kind of an achievement that “most people feel pride in their work and want to be read” (Ur, 1996, as cited in Harmer, 2001). In 1998, Garfield-Vile describes this as “a journey of self-discovery and self-discovery promotes effective learning” (as cited in Harmer, 2001).
With this approach, students have all the chance and opportunity to be creative: expressing themselves through writing short stories and poetry. While they are at it, they are tapping into their own experiences to motivate them finding the right words to express such experiences.
Teachers who want students to explore their creative ability love this idea because this paves the way for students to discover their writing ability in the field of literature. However, there is always a danger that students may find writing creatively difficult. They would find it difficult simply because they might not have anything to write, which is a real painful and not-so-motivating experience. This could create in their minds an association of creative writing with the sense of frustration and failure. Thus, if a teacher really wants to implement this into the classroom, he should not expect too much or expect a perfectly made composition. Rather, he should introduce this kind of approach bit by bit to students that they won’t be traumatically surprised.

The Rhetorical Approach
In writing, students need to learn to subordinate the rhetorical tools to their creativity and self-expression. The fifth approach is rhetorical. When writing, many are influenced by rhetoric, which is the art of speaking. Rhetoric has its virtues, especially because it encourages awareness of an audience and recommends ways in which a speaker could keep attention focused on his main point. On the negative side, rhetoric can lead to less attention to reading and guide writers toward common places. The origin of rhetoric in cultures where books were rare and knowledge was all memorized explains why it does not insist on interpretation of text. The oral/aural orientation does not prevent the students, however, from adapting rhetoric to their cultural environment. Instead of resorting exclusively to what they remember, they can easily read and research in order to find support for his arguments. What rhetoricians call invention can be stimulated by reading and interpretation of texts (Rosu, n.d).
The structuring of writing is an important aspect of rhetoric, which sometimes falls into an exaggerated emphasis on the form at the expense of the content. The prescribed forms of rhetoric give the impression that writing an essay is like filling a vessel. This dominance of the form may seem constraining to some writers, who prefer to develop their own forms. The challenge, nevertheless, of fitting self-expression in a prescribed form can be exhilarating. A rhetorical approach balanced by attention to self-expression and to the process of invention based on research can work quite nicely.
There is another approach related to rhetoric, which is known as “rhetorical modes” (Rosu, n.d). This approach considers writing in its detailed operations, asking students to practice a mode (a description, a comparison, a narrative, an analysis, etc.) in a full essay. It also has positive and negative aspects and needs careful implementation. Students may learn to excel in a particular mode, but remain unable to integrate several modes in a more complex essay, and the purpose of their writing seems to be constrained by the form. Ignoring the fact that a piece of writing may result from a combination of several modes, students may be puzzled by writing tasks that do not lend themselves a particular mode. If students practice modes, they have to take care to integrate the skills and consider the way in which the separate operations contribute to the whole. They also need to emphasize their personal stakes as writers, and pursue the thought beyond the mode. Thus, students need to learn to subordinate the rhetorical tools to their creativity and self-expression.

The Personal Approach
More often than not, in a writing class, a teacher asks his students to write something about their lives, like their experiences and beliefs. This paves the way for the sixth approach presented in this paper which is personal. The main and basic reason why a teacher asks students to make personal essays is to develop self-reflection, self-awareness. That is why a teacher is chiefly valued for helping the students find their personal voices. When the emphasis on the personal goes too far, however, the balance tips in favor of self-indulgence, rather than self-reflection. This imbalance originates perhaps in confusing the personal with the private and confessional discourse.
As cited in Rosu (n.d), Harriet Malinowitz asserts that the personal essay, “doesn’t have to be—certainly should not be—self-indulgent or derivative of an Oprah-show confession, as some reflexively presume nor is it even necessarily about oneself; its essence is subjectivity, not autobiography.” It is really true, and it is also already proven (Rosu, n.d), that many students use the personal essay as a means to reveal social problems and debate cultural issues.
What can help students develop a more challenging self-reflective process is a thoughtful use of readings. Being inspired by the issues debated in the texts, students can then start exploring their personal experiences in new ways. From personal experience, they can progress to larger topics, in which they can invest attention and study, and become able to integrate academic knowledge in their personal preoccupations. The idea is to relate new concepts derived from reading to personal experience, without actually writing only for oneself. To be effective, a teacher must emphasize that although it is personal, personal essays should be reader-centered rather than writer-centered.
Developing self-reflection and awareness are two of the many things a student should learn in a writing class. That is why many teachers ask their students to write personal essays. However, inevitably students tend to be carried by their emotions while writing something personal, as the name seems to suggest. Thus, the end result is having an essay of forum of personal opinions rather than of personal voices. Students as writers must be aware that when they write, they have to conform to the standards set by community who are the possible readers of their work; and personal opinions simply do not adhere to such rules. Writing in schools spells writing scholarly or academically.

Scholarly/Academic Approach
Finally, the seventh and last approach discussed in this paper is academic. On top of the personal essays, a teacher also asks students to make academic essays to assert their own voices among others’. For those who emulate scholarly writing, the danger is to generate impersonal and unengaged essays. This happens when, uninitiated in the academic reasoning process, the students substitute academic parlance for actual thinking. For if the form of such essays is generally top-down, starting with a thesis and supporting it, it does not mean that the process of writing them follows the same path. On the contrary, the thesis is the final result of a lot of questioning, searching, and experimentation. Nor does such an essay need to claim the kind of total objectivity that translates into impersonal writing. Peter Elbow defines academic discourse as “giving reasons and evidence, yes, but doing so as a person speaking with acknowledged interests to others—whose interest and position one acknowledges and tries to understand” (as cited in Rosu, n.d). Academic thinking is exploratory in its main aspect and cultivates respect for other people’s work. It focuses on problems and looks for solutions.
If properly prepared, an academic essay has the virtue of fostering not only interpretation, but also original thinking. Engaged in interpretation of multiple texts and from various points of view, students can earn a position among other writers. They can also learn to assert their own voices among the voices of others. The best academic essays are engaged and personal, and they make complicated concepts clear and easy to understand for the layman.

Critical Perspectives on Second Language Writing
One further and important development in the teaching of writing is what is sometimes called a “critical perspective” on second language writing. A critical perspective on teaching writing, among other things, explores issues such as ideology, and identity, and how these are reflected in texts. This perspective goes beyond description and explanation of texts to “deconstructing” and, at times, even challenging texts. Classroom tasks and activities should aim to unpack ideologies, relationships, and identities so as to help students make choices in their writing that reflect who they are, and more importantly, who they want to be (Paltridge, 2004).

Academic Literacies Perspective on Second Language Writing
The academic literacies perspective, in the plural sense, sees learning to write as learning to acquire a repertoire of linguistic practices which are based on complex sets of discourses, identities, and values (Lea, 1994; Lea & Street, 1998; 1999; Starfield, 2004, as cited in Paltridge, 2004). Here, students learn to switch practices between one setting and another, learning to understand, as they go, why they are doing this, and what each position implies.
There is, sadly, no such thing as the one-size-fits-all academic essay that can be written in all areas of study (Johns, 1997 & Samraj, 2004, as cited in Paltridge, 2004) has observed. As Zamel and Spack, further, have argued, “it is no longer possible to assume that there is one type of literacy in the academy” (1998, as cited in Paltridge, 2004) and that there is one culture in the university whose norms and practices simply have to be learned in order for our students to have access to academic institutions.

Students as Researchers
Johns and Canagarajah (2002, as cited in Paltridge, 2004) recognize the difficulty this presents for the students by suggesting that a teacher can train his students to “act as researchers” (Johns, 1997, as cited in Paltridge, 2004) as a way of helping them write texts that consider the institutional and audience expectations of their particular fields of study. They argue that students can be trained to unpack the knowledge and skills that are necessary for membership of their particular academic community. A teacher should give them the skills to ask questions of the texts they are required to produce, of the context the texts are located in, and the people who will be reading (and evaluating) their work. Students may then decide to produce a text that fits in with these expectations, or they may write a text which challenges, or indeed resists, what is expected of them.

Ethnography of Writing
Grabe and Kaplan’s (1996, as cited in Paltridge, 2004) notion of an “ethnography of writing,” provides a useful way of drawing a number of these perspectives together. In the case of teaching academic writing, students can be asked to undertake an analysis of the social and cultural context in which the text they are writing occurs, and consider how the various components of the situation in which they are writing impacts upon what they write and how they write it.
The analysis might include a discussion of (adapted from Paltridge, 2004):
* The setting of the text - For example, is the text written in a high school, or a first year university course? Is it undergraduate or postgraduate?
* The purpose of the text - Is the purpose to display knowledge and understanding in a particular area, to demonstrate particular skills, to convince the reader, to argue a case, and at more advanced levels, to critique, and break new ground?
* The content of the text - For example, what points of view and claims are acceptable in the students’ area of study, and what points of view and claims are not, and why? What are they expected to say, and what are they not expected to say?
* The intended audience for the text, their role and purpose in reading the text – including how they will react to the text, and the criteria they will use for assessing the text.
* The relationship between the reader and writer of the text and how this impacts about what they say and how they say it. This is often one of the most difficult things for second language students in that they often have to write to tell someone something they already know (or know better than they do).
* General expectations and conventions for the text, as well as particular expectations, conventions and requirements of the student’s field of study - For example, how are they expected to reference in their area of study, how should they use source texts, how should they quote, how should they paraphrase (versus plagiarize), the level of critical analysis required (or not required) of them, the level of originality expected of them, and the amount of negotiation that is possible (or not) in terms of assessment requirements.
* The background knowledge, values, and understandings - it is assumed they will share with their readers, including what’s important to their readers and what’s not.
* The relationship the text has with other genres (such as lectures, set texts, journal articles, research reports etc) and how they will be used to support an argument. The teaching, thus, moves “beyond the text” to explore the context in which the texts are produced as well as reasons for the linguistic choices that the students are making. It is important to remember that the reasons for the linguistic choices a teacher makes are nearly always outside the text. Just looking at texts alone might give the students a description of a particular genre, but not an explanation or understanding of why it is as it is.

Recommendation
After the approaches and implications are discussed, this section now presents some recommendations to teachers. One thing that is not recommended to teachers is to mix approaches to writing in the same class. It is very difficult and disorienting for the students to learn to write in different genres within the short period of time of a semester, especially if they are not aware of the change from one type of essay to another. None of the approaches can teach the students to write in a single trial. Hence, what is recommended is writing four or five papers, which give the students similar tasks and help them perfect their techniques. Since the teacher’s purpose is to enable the students to tackle writing in other classes, he has to bring the students to a point where they will be able to do that, in whatever genre he has chosen to teach them. Whether the students learn to use the concepts from the readings to interpret their own experience, or to defend a thesis in a rhetorically effective manner, or to produce coherent interpretations, they will be able to approach any writing task with the skills they have acquired. The teacher should teach them that, irrespective of approach, all the essays they write must be personal, engaged, thoughtful, coherent, well formed, and capable to reach their audience.
A similar classification by genre of essays is to be found on the Website called Paradigm authored by Chuck Guilford. His list includes informal essays, thesis/support essays, exploratory essays, and argumentative essays. One point he makes about this division into genres is that they share characteristics, but one characteristic or another comes to dominate and defines the genre. The same holds true for the types of writing described above: No matter how a teacher approach writing, he aims at teaching the students to read attentively and interpret what they read—which means relating what they read to personal experience—to construct coherent wholes in their papers, and to consider the audience for whom they write.

Conclusion
The descriptions above apply to kinds or genres of essays that imply different approaches to writing. All these approaches to writing can lead to comparable results. The best samples of each are equally good and effective. What makes the approaches different is the road taken by the students, as the writers, to reach the final goal. How to help a student do his best depends on the approach to writing, and pedagogy may vary with the kind of writing a teacher wants to teach. There are a few things that all approaches have in common though. They all encourage the writers to be active readers and to appropriate the author position. They all respect the individuality of the writer and emphasize the importance of the audience.
It is important to tell the students what the qualities of good writing are, and how a teacher aims to reach them through his particular approach to writing. Too many times, students seem to think that every teacher appreciates a different kind of writing, and that they have to learn everything over again—that is damaging to them and to the teacher. On the contrary, if a teacher is aware of the other approaches, and he can see what their strengths and weaknesses are, he can help his students become better writers. He may want to identify the way the students have been taught to write and encourage them to use the skills they have acquired in new ways. Such encouragement may also teach them to transfer the writing skills from one type of course to another. They will then be as excited and merry as the five-year old Filipino boy who eagerly announced to his family and friends that he was able to write “I love you.”

References

Alinsangan, P. (2005). Study and thinking skills: A workbook in English 2. Iligan City, Philippines: Julbert Press.
Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (2nd ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed.) (2001). Teaching English as a foreign or second language
(3rd ed.). USA: Thompson Learning, Inc.
Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English language teaching (3rd ed.). England: Oxford University Press.
Paltridge, B. (2004). Approaches to teaching second language writing.
Available:www.englishaustralia.com.au/index.cgi?E=hcatfuncs&PT=sl&X=getdo c&Lev1=pub_c05_07&Lev2=c04_paltr
Rosu, A. (n.d). Approaches to writing.
Available: www.nj.devry.edu/~arosu/comp/approaches_to_teaching_writing.htm

MSU-IIT’s 39th Commencement Exercises

The Mindanao State University—Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT) had its 39th Commencement Exercises on Wednesday (April 1, 2009) at the MSU-IIT Gymnasium with 1,673 students who received degrees or diploma.

Faith Q. Baldonado (Summa Cum Laude with a GPA of 1.1920), a major in BS Industrial Automation and Mechatronics, delivered the valedictory address. She is a grantee of The Robert Schappert U.S.A. Scholarship. Reina Karen M. Celestino (Magna Cum Laude with a GPA of 1.2003), a major in BSE Physics and the class salutatorian, led the Pledge of Loyalty to the Alma Mater.

Degrees were conferred on 1,583 undergraduates and 90 masters and doctorate students in the MSU-IIT. Academic distinction in degree courses was given to 1 Summa Cum Laude, 29 Magna Cum Laude, and 158 Cum Laude graduates. Academic distinction in diploma courses was given to 2 With High Honors and 33 With Honors, while academic distinction in two-year diploma course was given to 6 With Honors.

In addition, the Institute honored the following students with Co-Curricular Leadership Awards: Cathy S. Bariga (Institute Leadership Award from CBAA), Marvin S. Galeos (College Leadership Award from CBAA), Mc Crae John P. Suico (College Leadership Award from CED), Louie S. Fiel (School Leadership Award from SET), Lowilton T. Mirasol (College Leadership Award from CSM), Archie G. Abuhon (Activity Award in Dance Cultural from CED), Rei Lena Yasmin G. Maranda (Activity Award in Debate from CASS), Fatimah P. Imam (Activity Award in Journalism from CASS), Joey Rey B. Cartajenas (Activity Award in Music Instrumental from CSM), Astrid F. Ebillo (Activity Award in Music Vocal from CED), Lyn Corazon B. Ilustico (Activity Award in Performing Arts from CED), and Primitivo C. Ragandang III (Activity Award in Sikap).

Dr. Diosdado P. Banatao, the Bill Gates of the Philippines, a Silicon Valley serial entrepreneur and computer guru, and the Presidential consultant for the country’s Engineering Research and Development for Technology (ERDT), was the commencement speaker. He received an honoris causa in Doctor of Technology in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the computer industry. Dr. Macapado A. Muslim, the President of Mindanao State University System, conferred the degree.

Brain Drain and Great Gain

“Well, it is very important to the society.” This was the answer of a contestant in a beauty pageant after being asked: “What is your opinion about the brain drain in the Philippines?” The people in the audience were laughing. Maybe because they thought the contestant did not understand the question. Or maybe they thought it was not the right answer. Whatever their reason for laughing was, as a Filipino, I strongly believe the answer is correct.
Dear friends, ladies and gentlemen, my fellow Filipinos, good day. Brain drain is the movement of highly skilled people, especially scientists, doctors, nurses, educators, and technical workers, to a country offering better opportunities. The country, like Philippines, from where these skilled people come is metaphorically drained from brains (that’s why it’s called brain drain). Apparently, it’s a loss because the country will eventually suffer from a brainless nation: no doctors and professors. So, many nationalists don’t like the idea. They want the government to stop sending these people to other countries. If they, however, would try to see this case in a deeper way, they would agree with me that the government should encourage more and more Filipinos to go abroad instead for the country’s profit.
First, every Filipino has the freedom and right to work wherever he wants. As stipulated in the Philippine Constitution, every Filipino has the human rights. Part of which is the right to work and the right to work anywhere he pleases. The Philippines is a democratic country: a country for the people and a country by the people. With regard to this, if a Filipino wishes to work abroad, he is exercising his human right; it’s his choice—his freedom. If he is barred from doing so, he is being deprived from his rights. We all agree that we don’t want to be deprived from any human right. I mean, who does? If a Filipino is banned from going abroad, this is no longer in accordance to the kind of country that is for and by the people. If he wants to work out there, then, let him be. Give him freedom; he deserves it. I deserve it. You deserve it. We all deserve it. It is our right!
Another reason has something to do with Filipinoness. My history professor once told our class that history has never been kind to the Philippines. This country had experienced colonization and slavery for centuries. This then has given a label or brand that Filipinos are slaves. As a result, we Filipinos are being looked down by foreigners. It seems that we have become incapables to their sight. Let me ask you this question: Do you like to be treated as uncivilized or uneducated one? No, no one does. But that’s how most of the foreigners think of a Filipino. Hey, don’t get mad. I’m just telling the truth. Let’s face the fact. That’s why we have to prove something: that they are wrong. How can we do this? I would be presumptuous if I would say that I know the only way. But I can tell you one of the effective ways. Know what that is? Let me tell you of my friend’s case. He is a nurse. Now, he works in the United Kingdom. Every year, one worker is awarded of The Outstanding Nurse of the Year. Guess what? He’s got it! Through it, he’s able to prove to the people in the West that a Filipino can do something and be somebody. The award was like telling the Europeans to stop underestimating Filipinos. It clearly proves that he, a Filipino, is the best among other foreign workers. This is just one of the Filipino-worker-triumph stories around the globe. I know that you also have similar victory stories of your Filipino friends working abroad. The point is clear: Every Filipino can show to the world that he’s more able and more capable as he works in other countries. Because of this, can the foreigners still say we’re uneducated and uncivilized? Tell me.
Now, the last reason is about being a hero. Nobody would disagree with me if I say that those Filipinos who work abroad are called heroes. They are sending in dollars to our country which at least makes the economy better, if not best. In other words, more Filipinos abroad mean more dollars; and more dollars spells economic development. But working abroad is not all about being a fancy national hero, it is also about being a true family hero—to the ones you dearly love. I have a neighbor. He used to work as a technician in a private company in Iligan City. He has four children. Sad thing about his family was that they hardly ate three times a day and his children stopped schooling for a while simply because his salary was not good enough to sustain them and to send them to school. I can still remember that they would borrow money from my mother. One day, an opportunity knocked. He opened the door. And there he goes; currently, he works in Dubai as a skilled worker. I can say that the pay is real good because his children do not only eat three times a day but also they’ve got snacks in between meals (even some midnight snacks). At the moment, his children are not only enrolled at any school in Iligan City but to one of the prestigious private schools. Here’s more: Every Christmas and summer vacation, they travel to places like Baguio, Metro Manila, Cebu, and Davao. Thus, while working abroad, every Filipino helps not only the Philippine economy and society, but most importantly, gives a brighter and better future to his dear beloved ones—his family.
The government should not ban Filipinos from working abroad. This is our right as Filipinos. This is our way of showing the foreigners we’re better than them. And this is our help to the Philippines and the gift of better, brighter future to our families. If the government stops sending Filipinos abroad, it stops the flow of benefits which the country could gain. That is why I strongly believe that the answer of that beauty pageant contestant is right: Brain drain in the Philippines “…is very important to the society” because of its great gains.

Beast in the Beauty: A Formalistic Approach on Jessica Hagedorn's Dogeaters

I. Jessica Hagedorn
As both a student and instructor, I traditionally present first a little background of the author before I discuss the work. So I researched Jessica Hagedorn’s biography on the internet. Like the other previous authors presented in class, Jessica Hagedorn is one of those that I admire the most. The proceeding paragraphs, which include facts about her life and works, are taken from and based on www.wikipedia.com.
Jessica Tarahata Hagedorn was born and raised in Manila, Philippines in 1949. With her background, a Scots-Irish-French-Filipino mother and a Filipino-Spanish father with one Chinese ancestor, Hagedorn adds a unique perspective to Asian-American performance and literature. Her mixed media style incorporates song, poetry, images, and spoken dialogue.
In 1963, she moved to San Francisco and she received her education at the American Conservatory Theater training program. She likes arts, especially writing and music. To further pursue playwriting and music, she then moved to New York in 1978. Her first play, Mango Tap, was produced by Joseph Papp in 1978. Her other productions include Tenement Lover, Holy Food, and Teenytown.
In 1985, 1986, and 1988, she received Macdowell Colony Fellowships, which helped enable her to write the novel Dogeaters, which illuminates many different aspects of Filipino experience, focusing on the influence of America through radio, television, newspapers, and movie theaters. In the novel, she shows the complexities of the love-hate relationship of Filipinos in diverse culture and language feel toward the past and even the future. After its publication in 1990, the novel earned a 1990 National Book Award nomination and an American Book Award. In 1998, the novel was adapted and staged, produced by the La Jolla Playhouse.
At the moment, she lives in New York with her husband and two daughters. Still, she continues to be a poet, storyteller, musician, playwright, and multimedia performance artist.

II. Introduction to Dogeaters
Dogeaters is a fictional novel written by Jessica Hagedorn. It was published in 1990. Hagedorn also adapted her novel into a play by the same name. Her mixed ethnic background, with a Scots-Irish-French-Filipino mother and a Filipino-Spanish father, allows her to have a unique point of view of her homeland. The novel addresses several social, political, cultural, religious, and gender issues present in the Philippines during the 1950s. This book, as mentioned earlier, has won an American Book Award in 1990 and was nominated for the National Book Award in 1991.
Now, let me try to explain the possible reason for Jessica Hagedorn’s use of dogeaters as the title. The word Dogeaters is a common derogatory term referring to Filipino natives who eat dogs instead of pork or chicken. This may be due to poverty but the primary reason is that this has become a part of the culture and tradition of some Filipino natives. The term shows the attitude toward Filipino culture and society, as well as their attempt to move towards a more Westernized society. The title Dogeaters also accurately portrays the characters’ dreams (like that of Romeo’s and Joey’s) of trying to remove themselves from poverty and their hopes of living a glamorous, prosperous life in the United States. Within the novel, there are some references to slaughtering of dogs to illustrate the undeniable poverty and corruption in the country. The term Dogeaters, therefore, refers to the poor Filipinos (represented by a junkie DJ Joey and an arrogant waiter Romeo) who dream of travelling and working in foreign countries like America and Germany, and even the rich Filipinos (represented by the Alacrans, Avilas, and Gonzagas) who try to socialize with foreigners to make them feel superior, in a sense that they are also foreigners themselves.

III. Setting
The novel is set in Metro Manila. To be specific on the location, I roughly estimate that 90% is in Makati-Mandaluyong, 5% in Tondo, and 5% in other places like America, Quezon City, Quiapo, Bagiuo, and on the mountains. The Christmas season, however, is not made clear until the middle part of the novel, where Socorro “Abuelita” Pertierra Gonzaga pays visit from Spain during the holiday season.
The story happens during the turbulent period of the Philippines’ late dictator Marcos. Although the Marcos family ruled in the Philippines from 1965 to 1986, the novel is set in 1956 or 1959 (Rio Gonzaga, one of the story tellers, is uncertain of the date, she is even arguing with her cousin Rio on the year: Was it 1956? or 1959?). This is to show Jessica Hagedorn’s creativity as a writer. Had she set the novel in the exact period the Marcos ruled, the novel would have become a history book.

IV. Characters
There are more than sixty-five distinct colorful characters in the novel. The inclusion of a broad range of characters is for an important purpose. As I understand, the short descriptions of many characters show the relationship between high-class characters and low-class characters. More importantly, through many characters, the novel is able to demonstrate the connections and relationships between each other. These are the characters in the novel:

Major Characters
A. Rio Gonzaga
Rio is the first narrative voice in the novel. She sets the tone for the entire book. In the beginning, she reveals her thoughts and fantasies as a ten-year-old girl. While Rio belongs to the high class, she is unpretentious and has compassion for the lower class, unlike her cousin Pucha and the rest of her relatives. Consequently, she enjoys the company of her grandmother Lola Narcisa (the Filipina type of a grandmother as oppose to Socorro “Abuelita” Pertierra Gonzaga, who is self-acclaimed Spanish) and all the servants, like Aida (helper), Pacita (cook), and Macario (driver). Later in the novel, by her mother Dolores’s will, she leaves from Manila to the United States to study. She goes to America with her mother who wishes to improve her skills in painting. She only revisits her childhood home as an adult. Upon returning to her old home, she is nostalgic of the old times. She may be the most popular among the characters because among the set of point of views, she has the first, middle, and last part of the novel. This might give her the protagonist role. However, I don’t think that she is the protagonist. She merely narrates her story in relation to the big events in 1950s: the rise of the Alacrans, the beauty pageant crowning Daisy Avila, Senator Avila’s assassination, and the First Lady’s Film Festival. Also, she tells the readers how she misses the country and her relatives. That’s pretty much about her story. There is a change in her but that is not enough to make her the protagonist.
B. Pucha Gonzaga Alacran
Pucha is Rio’s closest cousin (in fact, throughout the novel, they act and talk as sisters). She enjoys being the center of attention and grabbing boys’ attention. She craves the glamorous life at a young age and desires to be on top of the social ladder. In an attempt to reach her ambitions, she becomes too liberated. As a result, Rio’s parents (Freddie and Dolores) are afraid of her bad influence on Rio. Years later, Pucha makes her dream come true: She marries a very wealthy man, who is her childhood crush and fantasy, with good connections—Boomboom Alacran, Severo Alacran’s nephew. The marriage, however, barely lasts a year. Even though Pucha gets a divorce, she still keeps the last name of Alacran.
C. Severo Alacran
Severo Alacran is like the Donald Trump and probably the richest man in Manila (according to the novel). He is a self-made man who owns biggest corporations such as TruCola Soft Drinks, SPORTEX (a country club and a futuristic department store, probably the Mall of Asia that time), and controls interests in Mabuhay Movie Studios. Even though he is married to a beauty queen, Isabel Alacran, he has many mistresses including Lolita Luna and sleeps with many of his servants. A very detailed description of him (with some allusions to Ferdinand Marcos) is explicit in chapter three “The King of Coconuts.”
D. Isabel Alacran
Isabel is the wife of Severo Alacran. Her exceptional beauty is her biggest asset. She meets Severo at a social party and marries him out of self-interest. As the wife of Severo, she enjoys her new social status and the pampering that accompanies it. She is fond of correcting mistakes by foreigners (chapter “Luna Moth”). Many times in the novel, she is alluded to Imelda Marcos (this is made obvious during the latter part of chapter three).
E. Rosario “Baby” Alacran
Rosario, nicknamed Baby, is the daughter of Severo and Isabel Alacran. Unlike her mother, she does not possess feline allure. She is ugly, plump, shy, and awkward. Baby must shower three times a day since she sweats uncontrollably, which causes her a terrible disease that even Dr. Ernesto Katigbak (a heart surgeon) and his wife Dr. Emilia Katigbak (a skin specialist) diagnose it as “an extreme case of nonspecific tropical fungus” (p. 28). At seventeen, she meets Oswaldo “Pepe” Carreon and falls in love with the way he talks to her. She soon gets pregnant and elopes with Pepe. Despite the disapproval of Baby’s mother, Pepe and Baby get married in order to avoid scandal.
F. Daisy Avila
Daisy Avila is Senator Domingo Avila’s daughter. She is a beauty pageant queen (like a Bb. Pilipinas). After winning the title of Miss Philippines, she becomes depressed. She later publicly denounces the pageant and becomes involved with political leftist Santos Tirador to find the one who assassinated his father. Consequently, Daisy is arrested, raped, and tortured by General Ledesma and his military men. Aiming to avenge her father, she later becomes a refugee or a guerrilla on the mountains. She then changes her name to Aurora, who teaches Joey Sands “how to use a gun” (p.233). In my opinion, she is the protagonist. She is the one who changes (although many characters change in the novel, she has the most change: from a beauty queen on stage to a guerrilla on the mountains, and from a daughter of the Senator to a mother of the rebels, from Daisy to Aurora, from a mansion to a camp on the mountains, and from a feminine figure to a boyish rebel leader). Her story is told by an omniscient point of view. Among the main characters, she is the only one with a chapter in the novel entitled “Epiphany.” With these, I strongly believe she is the protagonist.
G. Joey Sands
Joey tells his own story (a first person point of view). He grows up without parents. He is a gay prostitute who fortunately works as a number one DJ at CocoRico, the most famous and probably the biggest disco club in Manila. (The club is owned by Andres Alacran, a cousin to Severo Alacran.) He is the paid escort for several steady clients, including a famous German director Reiner and an American tourist Neil. Later, Joey decides to end his relationship with Reiner without a formal good-bye and by stealing his wallet and a bag of money and cocaine. After fleeing from his former lover, he witnesses the assassination of Senator Domingo Avila. Thus, he now becomes both a witness and a criminal. Consequently, he hides out at Uncle’s shack. After realizing that Uncle has betrayed him, he escapes from the shack by killing first Taruk (Uncle’s dog) and then hiding at Boy-Boy’s apartment for quite a while to escape from the law. Eventually, he has gone, without an option, with the guerrillas led by Aurora (Daisy Avila) to seek justice.
H. Uncle
After Joey’s prostitute mother Zenaida abandons him and commits suicide, Uncle adopts Joey, together with the other orphans Boy-Boy and Carding, as his own son. Even though Uncle has a fatherly figure, he is not a man of good morals. Instead of teaching Joey the rewards of working hard, Uncle teaches him the art of stealing, making Joey the I-was-never-caught robber. Later, when he finds out that Joey is the witness to the assassination, he betrays Joey by attempting to sell him out to the authorities through Sergeant Planas. He never succeeds because before he is able to do it, Joey escapes from his shack.
I. Orlando “Romeo” Rosales
Orlando’s story is told by an omniscient point of view. He is known as Romeo (19 years old), a lover to Trinidad “Trini” Gamboa (28 years old). He is a self-absorbed man, who believes his beauty will grant him fame. In attempt of pursuing an acting career through his old friend Tito Alvarez, he decides one day to end his amorous relationship with Trinidad “Trini” Gamboa, a sales lady at SPORTEX. On that very day, he is mistaken for someone in a group of subversives based in the Cordilleras. Orlando is fatally shot and thus becomes part of the aftermath of the Senator’s assassination. He is detained in General Nicasio Ledesma’s camp and nobody is allowed to see him even his girlfriend Trini. Although she explains to the military that her boyfriend Romeo has nothing to do with the assassination, still nobody believes her. During the interview by a foreign newscaster Steve, The First Lady points her finger at Romeo, who, according to her, has assumed his identity because he is a genuine “intelektwal” (p.219). She lies that he has all these planned, that being a waiter is part of the plan and that his girlfriend is his accomplice.

Minor Characters
A. Andres Alacran
Andres is the homosexual owner of CocoRico, a prestige bar that attracts many foreigners and famous people. As a member of a high-class family, he makes sure everyone remembers he is an Alacran. He is old-fashioned and arrogant.
B. Boy-Boy
Boy-Boy is an orphan taken in by Uncle. He works as a shower dancer at Studio 54, a gay club. During the assassination scandal, Boy-Boy helps Joey escape from Uncle and arrest by the police. His good nature is shown through this act of kindness.
C. Sergeant Planas
The Sergeant works for Pepe Carreon and is Uncle’s contact in the government. He has dealt with Uncle before, and Uncle goes to him when Joey is hiding out in his shack, asking the Sergeant to pass along a message to Pepe that Uncle has confidential information regarding national security, which is “A matter of life and death” (p.200).
D. The President and the First Lady
Both characters are intentionally only mentioned by their positions and never given specific names. Although the powerful couple has minor roles, they portray the corruption of the government. The characters are also illustrated to show how they live in luxuries, while the rest of the country suffers from poverty.
E. General Nicasio “Nicky” Ledesma
The General is a powerful figure who cheats on his wife Leonor Bautista, who is extremely religious, with the famous movie star Lolita Luna. He pays for Lolita’s house, clothes, and other amenities, but also controls her. During the scandal of Senator Avila’s assassination, he is involved in the arrest and interrogation of Miss Philippines, Daisy Avila. His actions show the corruption of politics.
F. Lolita Luna
Lolita is a famous movie star known for her sexuality and magnificent body. She uses her fame to manipulate powerful men like General Ledesma. She is the one who dares call the General as Nicky. Even though she is considered wealthy and part of the upper class, she wishes to leave the Philippines for the United States in order to get “more shoes and more drugs” (p.177).
G. Oswaldo “Pepe” Carreon
Pepe is a twenty-seven year old man who works with General Nicasio Ledesma. He later becomes Rosario “Baby” Alacran’s husband. Baby’s mother never approves of Pepe because of his army career, and his inherent ugliness. His presence during Daisy’s interrogation links him to the political controversy involving Senator Avila’s assassination. He acts mysteriously as he never goes back home after the assassination. This made Baby Alacran “The Weeping Bride.”
H. Rainer
Rainer, the famous German director, is a foreigner fascinated by gay pornography and the simple life of Filipinos. He has a short two-week relationship with Joey Sands and gains Joey’s love, which Joey denies, by flaunting his BMW and luxurious lifestyle.
I. Senator Domingo Avila
Domingo is a politician in Manila. He is a human rights activist who is labeled a leftist by the government. His assassination becomes a great mystery since it is unclear who shot him. Even at the end of the novel, his assassination remains a mystery. Consequently, those people who got in the way are also never released from the camp of the General.
J. Trinidad “Trini” Gamboa
Trinidad is a twenty-eight year old woman who is attracted by Romeo’s beauty. She conquers Romeo on the first night by buying his love. Trinidad is a sales associate at SPORTEX who enjoys being associated with the prestigious and wealthy.
K. Cora Camacho
Cora is like the Oprah Winfrey of the Philippines. Her talk show is very popular and touches its audience. She interviews important figures such as Severo Alacran, the First Lady, and Daisy Avila.




V. Point of View
The story is told from three perspectives of a variety of characters, two of whom are interconnected in this Filipino society. The first narrator is Rio Gonzaga, who tells the stories of the Gonzaga clan in relation to the big people in the country, like the Alacrans, the Avilas, General Ledesma, the celebrities (like Lolita Luna, Nestor, and Joselito Sanchez), The President and The First Lady, and foreigners (like the ambassadors Howard and Joyce Goldenberg). The second narrator is third person omniscient. He tells the stories of the Alacrans, Romeo Rosales, The President and The First lady, and the Avilas. The third and last narrator is Joey Sands. He narrates his stories with Uncle, mother Zenaida, childhood friends Boy-Boy and Carding, the Alacrans, gay clients like Neil and Reiner, and his “old friend” Tito Alvarez, a movie star.

VI. Plot
Dogeaters follows the stories of several characters in the Philippines, including upper-class members of the Alacrans, Avilas, Gonzagas, celebrities, politicians, and The First Family. It also delves into the lives of the lower, working class, including a waiter at Monte Vista (Romeo), a club junkie DJ at CocoRico (Joey), and a store clerk at SPORTEX (Trinidad). The story generally revolves around these characters.
The book begins with lengthy introductions and character descriptions. Rio Gonzaga plays the role of narrator for her family. Then, another narrator introduces other important characters, such as the wealthy Severo Alacran, and his wife Isabel through a third person omniscient point of view. However, the omniscient narrator also contrasts the upper-class lives of the Gonzagas and Alacrans with poorer characters, providing an accurate portrayal of the disparity among the different classes in Filipino society. Another narrator is Joey Sands, a local DJ at a gay club and a male prostitute, who offers a cynical glance at the homosexual social circles in Manila, as well as his personal experiences as a prostitute with wealthy foreigners. The omniscient narrator also explores the relationship between Romeo Rosales and Trinidad Gamboa. Romeo is determined to become an actor, which demonstrates the way in which Filipinos idolize celebrities and actors. The omniscient narrator also shows that despite the beliefs of many Filipinos, the lives of actresses such as Lolita Luna are anything but glamorous, but are rather a spiraling trap of drugs and sexual exploitation by powerful men.
The novel intertwines these characters and stories through a series of events, including the “Young Miss Philippines” annual pageant, the Manila International Film Festival, and the assassination of human rights activist Senator Domingo Avila. Daisy Avila, the Senator’s daughter, wins the beauty pageant, but instead of rejoicing in her victory, she becomes depressed and withdraws into her family home. She locks herself in her room and hangs up the phone whenever someone calls her. The entire country wishes to know what happens but she keeps hiding from the media. She herself couldn’t understand why she becomes depressed when she’s now a beauty queen. She simply is not satisfied being such. A lot of productions are cancelled because she doesn’t show up. A number of companies go down because of her not cooperating with the endorsement. Her father approves of her decision and so with her mother. Finally, she breaks the walls and reveals herself to the media through allowing herself to be interviewed by Cora Camacho on Girl Talk. She later publicly denounces the pageant and enters into a tumultuous relationship with foreign banker Malcolm Webb. The relationship doesn’t last. They end the relationship sooner than expected because Malcolm Webb finds Daisy’s publicity useless. Later, she then gets involved with political leftist Santos Tirador, son of Horacio, the hired painting teacher to Clarita (Daisy’s cousin, who is an artist). After this, she is temporarily off the scene.
Meanwhile, the Manila International Film Festival, a project spearheaded by the First Lady of the Philippines, brings about superficial changes to Manila. The changes include the construction of a cultural center and the attempts to improve the slums by building walls. During the construction, one of the structures collapses, and kills many of the Filipino workers (like hundreds of them). Despite a brief mass, the First Lady orders cement to be poured over the bodies and the continuation of construction. Rainer, a German director, is in Manila for the Festival, and ends up in CocoRico. There he meets Joey Sands. At first look, he falls in love with Joey. He can’t take his eyes off him so he orders the owner Andres to request Joey to be his escort for two weeks. He just wants Joey to be with him. Despite the advances of actress Lolita Luna, Rainer takes Joey back to the house the government has provided for his stay in Manila. He then convinces Joey to stay with him for the rest of the two weeks. The novel then skips forward to the day that Rainer leaves Manila. While Joey and the German are having breakfast at the Intercontinental Hotel, Joey steals the bag of money and drugs from the German. Joey does this because he is sick and tired of becoming just a DJ. He wants to become rich and go abroad—work and live there successfully. As he is leaving the hotel, at the entrance, Joey suddenly becomes the witness to the assassination of Senator Domingo Avila, a political and human rights activist.
Soon after, Romeo is on his way to meet Trinidad “Trini” Gamboa, determined to break up with her simply because he never loved her. He keeps on telling his mother and himself, “I don’t love her [Trinidad]” (“Last Chance,” pp.159-168). Flashbacks fill the chapter. While he is waiting for Trini, he recalls how his mother wants him to stay with Trini because she is his future. “You’ll never find anyone like her [Trinidad], believe me…” his mother always reminds him (p.162). Still, he insists that a girl like Trini is not worthy to be his wife. If he gets married, his dream of becoming a movie star would become impossible. He believes that when he is over with Trini, he is free from poverty because he can continue joining auditions and screenings to become a big time star and travel around the world (his childhood dream). His only hope is Tito Alvarez, whom he claimed to be his old friend and who is now a big star in the movie and radio industry. Problem is: Tito Alvarez seems to forget him (or never knew him at all). However, in a cruel twist of events amidst chaos in the streets, the innocent Romeo is shot, and taken into custody by the police as a suspect in the assassination of Senator Avila. Basically, this is how Romeo’s life ended in the novel—he is held in custody.
The novel next provides insight into the relationship between Lolita Luna and General Ledesma. Apparently, the General takes control of the relationship. In chapter “Movie Star,” the first part shows how powerful the General is over Lolita. The proceeding section of the chapter, however, provides the readers with a shocking revelation about the General: He hates “to admit his awareness of her [Lolita Luna] treachery, but he can’t help himself” (p.174). He is aware that his power and money are the only interests of Lolita. She stays with him because of what he has—not because of who he is. Here is an emotional line from this chapter: “He [the General] wants to make love to her [Lolita]. He dreams she will come to him out of desire—not for drug money, rent money, or access to his power” (p.176). Despite the fact that Lolita wants to leave Manila forever, and begs the General to help her leave, he refuses and she resorts to the other option of being sexually exploited in pornographic films in order to earn the money to leave the country. She insinuates that everyone knows that he was involved in the killing of Senator Avila, and that this is partially the reason why she wants to leave the Philippine. She believes that her life is in danger because she is the General’s mistress. At the end of the chapter, the General helplessly and pathetically gives Lolita Luna whatever she asks and wants from him.
In chapter “Golf” (pp.179-186), Pepe Carreon then reveals in conversation with Boomboom Alacran, Tito Alvarez and other characters that a man has confessed to a crime, insinuating that it is Romeo Rosales who has been forced to falsely confess that he assassinated Senator Avila. Then, the only lady in the group, Girlie Alacran, sister of Boomboom and the first runner-up to Daisy Avila (now, the reigning Miss Philippines), after hearing this gossip from the guys, walks out.
The novel then returns to Joey, who is fleeing from the scene of the assassination. He hides out in Uncle’s shack. While doing drugs, he makes the mistake of telling the old man what he has witnessed. At first, Uncle is so angry at him for betraying the German director and for being such stupid. Yet later as he reveals the key details about the assassin, Uncle’s mood is changed. He suddenly becomes extremely accommodating to Joey. He gives him comfort, food, cigar, and drink. He requests him to stay in the shack, sleep, and watch for the dog Taruk. While he is sleeping, Uncle leaves him the next morning to meet with Sergeant Isidro Planas and betray Joey to the authorities. He asks Isidro to pass along the message that he has vital information about the Senator’s assassination. Meanwhile, Joey wakes up and realizes that Uncle has purposely tied his dog up outside the shack to prevent Joey from escaping. In return for Uncle’s betrayal, Joey brutally kills Uncle’s precious dog Taruk then escapes to Boy-Boy’s apartment.
After a long period of silence, Daisy Avila is back on the show in chapter “The Famine of Dreams” (pp.211-216). As a result of her relationship with Santos Tirador, a pregnant Daisy is arrested, raped, and tortured by General Ledesma and his military men at Camp Meditation, a military complex. She is first interrogated but she gives no single answer. This infuriates the General, so she is ordered to be harassed, taking advantage of the sexy body.
In chapter “Bananas and the Republic,” the First Lady is interviewed by an American journalist Steve, through which it is revealed that Orlando “Romeo” Rosales has been arrested for the assassination of Senator Avila. The entire interview is filled with lies and false information. She says that Romeo was in possession of the same gun that killed the Senator, which shows that someone framed him. The American reporter also asks her about the capture of Daisy Avila, on which she does not comment. She also denies that the Philippines is a corrupt regime ruled by a dictator, and states that the opposition falsely invents human rights issues. Here are some of the things she claims: “I am a nationalist when it comes to fashion” (p.217); “I am cursed by my own beauty” (p.218); “Who am I to steal from those who have nothing? Why should I? Nothing can be gained from nothing” (p.222); and the irony of all, “Together we [the President and she] served the country, and together we sacrificed everything. We were chosen by God to guide and to serve” (p.224). She also states that the leftists double-crossed Senator Avila and they were the ones who executed him. She ends the interview by making the interviewer feel her husband and she are poor victims of the opposition.
In chapter “Terrain” (pp.225-233), Boy-Boy arranges for Joey to escape to a refugee camp in the mountains, where he meets Daisy, under the pseudonym Aurora, who is also a refugee hiding from the government with other men (like Edgar, Rudy, Tai, Father Francisco “Tikoy” the priest, and Lydia, who is Daisy’s cousin Clarita Avila). Daisy Avila has been released from Camp Meditation under the condition that she remains in permanent exile, however, she has returned to the Philippines. The novel also reveals that her child with Santos Tirador was born prematurely, and died (presumably as a result of Daisy’s torture in Camp Meditation). The chapter ends with: “They are together all the time. She [Aurora] teaches him [Joey] how to use a gun” (p.233). That’s pretty much how Daisy’s and Joey’s lives ended in the novel.
Rio Gonzaga then narrates the rest of the story (“Luna Moth,” pp.234-247), explaining the life stories of her family members. She describes the marriages of her brother Raul Gonzaga to Belen Garcia and then to Erlinda. Then, she tells about the short marriage of her cousin Pucha to Boomboom Alacran (her childhood crush and fantasy). Moreover, she states that her mother has left her father and took her to New York and then to Boston for her to study and for her mother to further develop her skills in painting. She often visits Manila, mostly to see Lola Narcisa, but returns to America. She concludes by asserting: “I never marry” (p.247). That seems to be the ending of the novel.
However, the author also inserts two last sections (“Pucha Gonzaga,” pp.248-249; and “Kundiman,” pp.250-251), one of which is narrated by Pucha Gonzaga. The chapter is like a reaction/response/correction letter to Rio Gonzaga’s novel. Generally, it contradicts most of the things that have been previously stated during the novel by Rio, which gives the readers a doubt and confusion about the entire novel. She strongly affirms that Rio has lied about many things—almost 85% of the novel. She states that their grandparents are still alive, and are living in Spain, but rather that Lola Narcisa is dead. Pucha also states that Rio’s parents are still together and married. This section causes the reader to have some doubts about the validity of Rio’s accounts, and the reliability of Rio as a narrator (which is to me a mystery). The final section of the novel is a cynical version of a prayer, which highlights political and social issues discussed during the novel, which wraps up everything: Now and forever, world without end. Now and forever” (p.251).

VII. Themes

A. Dictatorship and anarchy are never reconciled.
One theme that the author addresses in the novel is the clash between dictatorship and anarchy. The President and the First Lady have a foreboding presence throughout the novel and they are never referred by their names, but only by their titles. Another example of the clash between these two ideals is the human rights march led by Senator Domingo Avila in the beginning of the novel (p.98). The Senator is a human rights activist who protests because of “crimes against the people” and is labeled a “leftist” by the government (p.99). Later in the novel, the government assassinates the leftist opposition leader. As a result, Orlando “Romeo” Rosales, an innocent ambitious waiter who works for the Alacrans, is framed and forced to lie and confess to a crime that he did not commit (p.182). This is an explicit and overt demonstration of the oppression of the Filipino people by the government. The author juxtaposes these events with an interview with the First Lady, who lies throughout the interview, denying that the Filipino government is a dictatorship (p.220).



B. Women marry for money and power.
Another theme illustrated in Dogeaters is the achievement of high social standing for Filipino women through marriage. Jessica Hagedorn presents several female characters (Isabel Alacran, Lolita Luna, & Pucha Gonzaga) whose main motivation to marry or to be in a relationship is for financial security and improvement of their place in society. For example, Isabel Alacran was a hostess at a nightclub, but after winning a beauty contest, she becomes a star (p.20). She meets Severo Alacran at a party when they are both drunk, but she later realizes that he is an extremely powerful and wealthy man, and they marry. The author makes a point to emphasize that Isabel is a social asset to her husband, and in return, he pays for her shopping trips and travels. She no longer acts, but her main job in life is to always appear flawless and polished. Pucha Gonzaga Alacran also exhibits this mindset for women. From an early age she learns to overlook minor flaws if a potential romantic interest is of high social standing and comes from a wealthy family. For example, she states: “That’s Boomboom Alacran, stupid. He’s good enough for me” (p.6). She ends up marrying Boomboom Alacran, and despite the fact that they get divorced, she keeps his last name (the readers know better).

C. Beauty is power.
Another theme evident in Dogeaters is the importance of beauty for men and women. The novel shows how beauty can be used to manipulate others. For example, Rio’s mother Dolores Gonzaga follows a strict beauty regimen and uses various products and services in order to remain her youthful (p.82). She also employs a personal dressmaker, Uncle Panchito, and a personal manicurist, Salvador (p.80). (Both personal assistants are high-class.) She warns her daughter and her niece about the dangers of old age and ugliness, thus imparting these same beliefs into the younger generations in the novel. The idea of beauty is also epitomized in Joey, who uses his exotic looks to infatuate customers and procure money, gifts, and drugs from them.

D. Religion runs so deep.
Religion seems to be an underlying theme in Dogeaters. The extent of religious piety varies with each individual in this Filipino society, but a few key characters are described as extremely religious. For example, General Ledesma’s wife, Leonor Bautista, exhibits a monastic lifestyle, with much fasting and prayer, and strives for sainthood (p.68). Another character that is described as being extremely religious is Rio’s paternal grandmother, Soccoro “Abuelita” Gonzaga. Rio says that “she prays before eating, after eating, and when there is a lull in the conversation and she forgets we are all there” (p.92). Actions such as crossing herself, and objects such as a glow in the dark rosary are associated with Socorro. When Abuelita died, she “leaves everything to her priest and her church” (p.242). Religion runs so deep, especially in the Gonzaga family, that even when Rio’s grandfather, an avowed atheist, is dying, the family priest is called (p.17). Although Rio does not directly address the role of religion in her life during the novel, in the end she states that her “belief in God remains tentative” (p.247) and that she “long ago stopped going to church” (p.247). This conclusion insinuates the importance of religion in Filipino society, and that through Rio’s immigration and consequent Americanization, she has lost touch with this aspect of her native culture.

E. Filipinos embrace American influence and admire the culture.
A prevalent theme in the novel is the effect of American influence. From the beginning of the novel, the author shows the bombardment of the media. Through American movies and music young characters such as Rio and Pucha begin to desire American glamour and its brash style. For example, the media invokes in young girls the desire for curly hair like Shirley Temple. Through different outlets of the media, Filipinos learn to imitate the glamour of American lives. The importance of the media is also illustrated when the first lady states in an interview, “What would life be without movies?” (p.224). Clearly, Filipinos embrace American influence and admire the culture. Americanization is not only portrayed through the media, but also through the appearance of American products that state, “Made in de USA” (p.234). By mentioning the desire for American products such as “Jiffy Peanut Butter,” “Kraft Mayonnaise,” and “TruCola,” the author shows the emphasis Filipinos place on becoming an American-like country.

F. Women are either beautiful or intellectual.
Within Dogeaters women are divided into two main groups: beauty (Isabel Alacran, Dolores Gonzaga, Lolita Luna, & Daisy Avila) and intellects (Maria Luisa Batungbakal, Clarita Avila & Aurora Avila). Women are either preoccupied with beauty and climbing the social ladder or are more concerned with their education and the arts. This division shows the expectations society places on women. According to the novel, women are supposed to put marriage as a top priority. However, not everyone follows these social expectations. For example, Daisy Avila’s cousin Clarita chooses to paint “miniature landscapes of bright yellow demons with giant erect penises hovering over sleeping women” in order to release her frustration with the role of women (p.113). Also, Daisy Avila’s mother Maria Luisa Batungbakal, a professor at the University of the Philippines, protests her daughter’s involvement and victory at the “Miss Philippines Beauty Pageant” (p.102). It is clear only a few women are not influenced by Hollywood dreams.
G. People of all classes are associated with gay men.
Homosexuality is a strong undertone of the novel. The novel’s gay pornography and sexual acts can be interpreted as society’s acceptance of homosexuals. For example, women of high social standing (Dolores Gonzaga, Lolita Luna, & the First Lady) consort with homosexual men for fashion and hair advice. In addition, society accepts young homosexual men “lathering their bodies with soap” by paying to watch such kinky acts (p.141). One shower dancer is Joey’s childhood friend Boy-Boy who works at Studio 54. An interview with the First Lady also states that she believes her homosexual constituents to be loyal to her regime (p.217). The recurring images of homosexuality and people of different social standings show that people of all classes associate with gay men.

VIII. Allusions
The majority of allusions in Dogeaters are to fictional characters. However, some references are made to actual people and places. A section of the novel presents President William McKinleys “Address to a Delegation of Methodist Churchmen” (p.71), which provides a stereotypical American view of the Filipino people. Furthermore, the setting of the novel is in Manila, the actual capital of the Philippines. Also, the first part of the novel is called “Coconut Palace,” which refers to an actual palace in Manila that First Lady Imelda Marcos ordered to be built in honor of Pope John Paul II’s visit to the Philippines.
During the novel, the names of the President and the First Lady are never explicitly mentioned. However, there are several insinuations that they are in fact Ferdinand Edralin Marcos and his wife, Imelda Romualdez Marcos. For example, in the novel the First Lady orders a “cultural center” (p.130) to be built. This can be interpreted as a direct reference to the Cultural Center of the Philippines, which was commissioned by Ferdinand Marcos. In an interview in last part of the book, the First Lady discusses her shoes, which can be interpreted as a direct reference to Imelda Marcos’ extensive shoe collection. However, this is not the only possible interpretation, because the setting of the novel is in the late 1950s, and Ferdinand Marcos did not become President of the Philippines until 1965.

IX. Mood
The mood throughout Jessica Hagedorn’s Dogeaters is somber, brooding, and profoundly contemplative (especially if the reader is a Filipino like me). As the reader gets into the stories of Romeo Rosales and Joey Sands (both belonging to the lower class), it is truly saddening because it seems that they are stuck in their jobs and they can not do anything to go up higher in the society—They currently work, and soon, will die as waiter and DJ respectively. Worse: in the midst of poverty, it is a sad reality that first, there are rich people (Alacrans and Gonzagas) who just squander their money on leisure like golf, drugs, drinks, food, clothing, women, etc.; second, others would still corrupt the poor people to make them even richer (like The President and The First Lady); and finally, others would make the poor suffer even more just for their own sake (like the General, Alacrans, and Pepe Carreon).
There are, however, some parts in the novel which are light and cheerful. These parts include the happy childhood lives of Joey Sands with Carding and Boy-Boy, and the adventurous stories of Rio Gonzaga with Pucha.

X. Language and Style
Jessica Hagedorn is one great writer. She is so great that I feel not worthy describing the language and style she has used in her novel Dogeaters. She, as a seasoned, born writer, has a lot of artistic and original styles. In this section, I will just present two from my observations.
One of which styles is the mechanics (spelling, punctuation, & capitalization). Because she has an excellent facility of the English language, Hagedorn can easily play on it. As a reader, I can without a doubt identify the narrator in a particular chapter because of a distinct, unique style. If the chapter presents some run on sentences and fragments with bit errors on the spelling and punctuation, I can say that it’s Joey. If it’s good yet informal, conversational English, it’s Rio. Then, if it’s perfect formal English, it’s the omniscient narrator. This is a big help to me as I read the novel—I easily identify the narrator through the mechanics.
The other one is the use of varied languages, which Filipinos acquire during the history of trading system, colonization, and war. Generally, the novel is written in English, Hagedorn’s second language and the language she masters when she finally settles in New York, USA. Nevertheless, one cannot deny that fact that code-switching is apparent (88% English, 8% Filipino, 4% other languages like Spanish, Chinese, & Latin), a manifestation of Hagedorn’s inheritance from diverse races. The use of code-switching in the novel is effective to aid the author in painting and creating a vivid picture of a country with diverse culture and language. It greatly contributes to the development and establishment of the themes in the novel on politics, religion, gender, and social status in the Philippines.
Truly Jessica Hagedorn, as a Filipino writer abroad, has proven that she deserves merit and that her works, like Dogeaters, is worthy of time, effort, money, and the awards: the National Book Award and the American Book Award. All the knowledge and insights that she, through her book, has taught me as a student and instructor will forever remain in the fibers of my being.